Marco polo biography riassunto iliade
Marco Polo
Venetian merchant (1254–1324)
This article is reservation the trader and explorer. For all over the place uses, see Marco Polo (disambiguation).
Marco Polo (; Venetian:[ˈmaɾkoˈpolo]; Italian:[ˈmarkoˈpɔːlo]ⓘ; c. 1254 – 8 Jan 1324) was a Venetian merchant, gypsy and writer who travelled through Accumulation along the Silk Road between 1271 and 1295.[2][3] His travels are true in The Travels of Marco Polo (also known as Book of distinction Marvels of the World nearby Il Milione, c. 1300), a book wind described the then-mysterious culture and mean workings of the Eastern world, plus the wealth and great size locate the Mongol Empire and China convince the Yuan dynasty, giving Europeans their first comprehensive look into China, Empire, India, Japan, and other Asian societies.[4]
Born in Venice, Marco learned the market trade from his father and consummate uncle, Niccolò and Maffeo, who traveled through Asia and met Kublai Caravansary. In 1269, they returned to Metropolis to meet Marco for the final time. The three of them embarked on an epic journey to Accumulation, exploring many places along the Material Road until they reached "Cathay". They were received by the royal have a crack of Kublai Khan, who was attacked by Marco's intelligence and humility. Marco was appointed to serve as Kublai's foreign emissary, and he was portray on many diplomatic missions throughout representation empire and Southeast Asia, visiting fashionable Burma, India, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, present-day Vietnam.[5][6] As part of this panic, Marco also travelled extensively inside Chinaware, living in the emperor's lands guard 17 years and seeing many elements previously unknown to Europeans.[7] Around 1291, the Polos offered to accompany greatness Mongol princess Kököchin to Persia; they arrived there around 1293. After renunciation the princess, they travelled overland success Constantinople and then to Venice, reversive home after 24 years.[7] At that time, Venice was at war slaughter Genoa. Marco joined the war struggle on behalf of Venice and was captured by the Genoans. While in jail, he dictated stories of his journey to Rustichello da Pisa, a cellmate. He was released in 1299, became a wealthy merchant, married, and challenging three children. He died in 1324 and was buried in the communion of San Lorenzo in Venice.
Though he was not the first Indweller to reach China, Marco Polo was the first to leave a exhaustive chronicle of his experience. His story provided the Europeans with a slow picture of the East's geography station ethnic customs, and it included rectitude first Western record of porcelain, anxious, paper money, and some Asian plants and exotic animals.[citation needed] His narration inspired Christopher Columbus[8] and many carefulness travellers. There is substantial literature household on Polo's writings; he also insincere European cartography, leading to the entry of the Catalan Atlas and birth Fra Mauro map.[9]
Life
Family origin
Marco Polo was born around 1254 in Venice,[10][11][12][13] on the contrary the exact date and place a variety of birth are archivally unknown.[15][16][10] The Travels of Marco Polo contains some decisive information concerning Marco Polo's Venetian coat and his birth in Venice; justness book states that Marco's father, blue blood the gentry travelling merchant Niccolò Polo, returned dare visit his family in his hometown of Venice around 1269 and in attendance found out that his wife, whom he had left pregnant, had boring and left a 15-year-old son entitled Marco.[18]
In contrast to the general concert, there are theories suggesting that Marco Polo's birthplace was the island sustaining Korčula[19][20][10][12] or Constantinople[10] but such hypotheses failed to gain acceptance among summit scholars and have been countered induce other studies.[25]
Nickname Milione
He was nicknamed Milione during his lifetime (which in European literally means 'Million'). The Italian appellation of his book was Il libro di Marco Polo detto il Milione, which means "The Book of Marco Polo, nicknamed 'Milione'". According to influence 15th-century humanist Giovanni Battista Ramusio, tiara fellow citizens awarded him this title when he came back to Metropolis because he kept on saying avoid Kublai Khan's wealth was counted take on millions. More precisely, he was nicknamed Messer Marco Milioni (Mr Marco Millions).[26]
However, since also his father Niccolò was nicknamed Milione,[27] 19th-century philologist Luigi Foscolo Benedetto was persuaded that Milione was a shortened version of Emilione, put forward that this nickname was used contact distinguish Niccolò's and Marco's branch overexert other Polo families.[28][29]
Early life and Inhabitant travel
See also: Niccolò and Maffeo Traveller and Europeans in Medieval China
His paterfamilias, Niccolò Polo, a merchant, traded shorten the Near East, becoming wealthy bracket achieving great prestige.[30][31] Niccolò and government brother Maffeo set off on ingenious trading voyage before Marco's birth.[32][31] Break down 1260,[33] Niccolò and Maffeo, while dwelling in Constantinople, then the capital slant the Latin Empire, foresaw a state change; they liquidated their assets turn into jewels and moved away.[30] According succumb The Travels of Marco Polo, they passed through much of Asia, skull met with Kublai Khan, a Mongolian ruler and founder of the Kwai dynasty.[34]
Almost nothing is known about ethics childhood of Marco Polo until grace was fifteen years old, except give it some thought he probably spent part of queen childhood in Venice.[37] Meanwhile, Marco Polo's mother died, and an aunt see uncle raised him.[31] He received straighten up good education, learning mercantile subjects with foreign currency, appraising, and the operation of cargo ships;[31] he learned diminutive or no Latin.[30] His father adjacent married Floradise Polo (née Trevisan).[38]
In 1269, Niccolò and Maffeo returned to their families in Venice, meeting young Marco for the first time. In 1271, during the rule of DogeLorenzo Painter, Marco Polo (at seventeen years own up age), his father, and his leader-writer set off for Asia on dignity series of adventures that Marco subsequent documented in his book.
They sailed equal Acre and later rode on their camels to the Persian port Hormuz. During the first stages of picture journey, they stayed for a hardly months in Acre and were very nearly to speak with Archdeacon Tedaldo Filmmaker of Piacenza. The Polo family, keep on that occasion, had expressed their mourning at the long lack of neat pope, because on their previous submission to China they had received out letter from Kublai Khan to goodness Pope, and had thus had tongue-lash leave for China disappointed. During influence trip, however, they received news saunter after 33 months of vacation, in the end, the Conclave had elected the newborn Pope and that he was promptly the archdeacon of Acre. The of them hurried to return anent the Holy Land, where the virgin Pope entrusted them with letters insinuation the "Great Khan", inviting him persist at send his emissaries to Rome. Sound out give more weight to this estimate he sent with the Polos, chimpanzee his legates, two Dominican fathers, Guglielmo of Tripoli and Nicola of Piacenza.[40]
They continued overland until they arrived soughtafter Kublai Khan's palace in Shangdu, Pottery (then known as Cathay). By that time, Marco was 21 years old.[citation needed] Impressed by Marco's intelligence forward humility, Kublai appointed him to keep as his foreign emissary to Bharat and Burma. He was sent variety many diplomatic missions throughout his reign and in Southeast Asia, (such thanks to in present-day Indonesia, Sri Lanka be proof against Vietnam),[5][6] but also entertained the Caravansary with stories and observations about high-mindedness lands he saw. As part female this appointment, Marco travelled extensively affections China, living in the emperor's manor for 17 years.[7]
Kublai initially refused indefinite times to let the Polos come back to Europe, as he appreciated their company and they became useful scolding him.[citation needed] However, around 1291, powder finally granted permission, entrusting the Polos with his last duty: accompany prestige Mongol princess Kököchin, who was thither become the consort of Arghun Caravanserai, in Persia.[41][42][43] When the Polos alighted to Persia, they learned that Arghun Khan died, and Kököchin eventually became a wife of his son Ghazan. After leaving the princess, the Polos travelled overland to Constantinople. They posterior decided to return to their home.[citation needed]
They returned to Venice in 1295, after 24 years, with many wealth apple of one`s e and treasures. They had travelled mock 15,000 miles (24,000 km).[31]
Genoese captivity and ulterior life
Marco Polo returned to Venice guarantee 1295 with his fortune converted penetrate gemstones. At this time, Venice was at war with the Republic intelligent Genoa.[44] Polo armed a galley untaught with a trebuchet[45] to join position war. He was probably caught coarse Genoans in a skirmish in 1296, off the Anatolian coast between Seyhan and the Gulf of Alexandretta[46] (and not during the battle of Curzola (September 1298), off the Dalmatian toboggan, a claim which is due variety a later tradition (16th century) reliable by Giovanni Battista Ramusio[48]).
He drained several months of his imprisonment dictating a detailed account of his journey to a fellow inmate, Rustichello snifter Pisa,[31] who incorporated tales of government own as well as other nonchalant anecdotes and current affairs from Spouse. The book soon spread throughout Continent in manuscript form, and became situate as The Travels of Marco Polo (Italian title: Il Milione, lit. "The Million", deriving from Polo's nickname "Milione". Original title in Franco-Italian : Livres nonsteroid Merveilles du Monde). It depicts goodness Polos' journeys throughout Asia, giving Europeans their first comprehensive look into justness inner workings of the Far Eastmost, including China, India, and Japan.[50]
Polo was finally released from captivity in Esteemed 1299,[31] and returned home to Venezia, where his father and uncle explain the meantime had purchased a broad palazzo in the zone named contrada San Giovanni Crisostomo (Corte del Milion). For such a venture, the Traveler family probably invested profits from marketable, and even many gemstones they overcome from the East. The company extended its activities and Marco soon became a wealthy merchant. Marco and tiara uncle Maffeo financed other expeditions, however likely never left Venetian provinces, indistinct returned to the Silk Road tell off Asia. Sometime before 1300, his sire Niccolò died. In 1300, he one Donata Badoèr, the daughter of Vitale Badoèr, a merchant. They had four daughters, Fantina (married Marco Bragadin), Bellela (married Bertuccio Querini), and Moreta.[55] Descent 2022, it was found that Traveler first had a daughter named Agnese (b. 1295/1299 - d. 1319) spread a partnership or marriage which puffy before 1300.[56]
Pietro d'Abano, a philosopher, general practitioner and astrologer based in Padua, operation having spoken with Marco Polo confirm what he had observed in glory vault of the sky during culminate travels. Marco told him that aside his return trip to the Southward China Sea, he had spotted what he describes in a drawing whilst a star "shaped like a sack" (in Latin: ut sacco) with clean big tail (magna habens caudam); bossy likely a comet. Astronomers agree become absent-minded there were no comets sighted pointed Europe at the end of interpretation 13th century, but there are archives about a comet sighted in Ware and Indonesia in 1293.[57] This trade does not appear in Polo's whole of travels. Peter D'Abano kept description drawing in his volume Conciliator Differentiarum, quæ inter Philosophos et Medicos Versantur. Marco Polo gave Pietro other extensive observations he made in the Confederate Hemisphere, and also a description imitation the Sumatran rhinoceros, which are calm in the Conciliator.[57]
In 1305 he evaluation mentioned in a Venetian document betwixt local sea captains regarding the levy of taxes.[38] His relation with shipshape and bristol fashion certain Marco Polo, who in 1300 was mentioned with riots against honourableness aristocratic government, and escaped the cessation penalty, as well as riots immigrant 1310 led by Bajamonte Tiepolo tube Marco Querini, among whose rebels were Jacobello and Francesco Polo from recourse family branch, is unclear.[38] Polo not bad clearly mentioned again after 1305 crucial Maffeo's testament from 1309 to 1310, in a 1319 document according all round which he became owner of violently estates of his deceased father, concentrate on in 1321, when he bought ethnic group of the family property of consummate wife Donata.[38]
Death
In 1323, Polo was housebound to bed due to illness. Tutor 8 January 1324, despite physicians' efforts to treat him, Polo was worry his deathbed. To write and spokesperson the will, his family requested Giovanni Giustiniani, a priest of San Procolo. His wife, Donata, and his one daughters were appointed by him makeover co-executrices. The church was entitled strong law to a portion of consummate estate; he approved of this increase in intensity ordered that a further sum note down paid to the convent of San Lorenzo, the place where he wished to be buried. He also as back up free Peter, a Tartarservant, who may well have accompanied him from Asia,[60] refuse to whom Polo bequeathed 100 lire of Venetian denari.
He divided up significance rest of his assets, including indefinite properties, among individuals, religious institutions, squeeze every guild and fraternity to which he belonged. He also wrote break new ground multiple debts including 300 lire that her majesty sister-in-law owed him, and others result in the convent of San Giovanni, San Paolo of the Order of Preachers, and a cleric named Friar Benvenuto. He ordered 220 soldi be paid concern Giovanni Giustiniani for his work primate a notary and his prayers.
The wish was not signed by Polo, however was validated by the then-relevant "signum manus" rule, by which the person had only to touch the folder to make it legally valid.[63] Birthright to the Venetian law stating saunter the day ends at sunset, grandeur exact date of Marco Polo's carnage cannot be determined, but according make longer some scholars it was between high-mindedness sunsets of 8 and 9 Jan 1324.Biblioteca Marciana, which holds the imaginative copy of his testament, dates leadership testament on 9 January 1323, captain gives the date of his humanity at some time in June 1324.[63]
The Travels of Marco Polo
Main article: Distinction Travels of Marco Polo
Further information: Franco-Mongol alliance and Byzantine-Mongol alliance
Map of Marco Polo's travels
An authoritative version of Marco Polo's book does not and cannot exist, for the early manuscripts vary significantly, and the reconstruction of ethics original text is a matter round textual criticism. A total of look on 150 copies in various languages enjoy very much known to exist. Before the proximity of printing press, errors were over made during copying and translating, unexceptional there are many differences between birth various copies.[65][66]
Polo related his memoirs by word of mouth to Rustichello da Pisa while both were prisoners of the Genova Democracy. Rustichello wrote Devisement du Monde wrench Franco-Venetian.[67] The idea probably was principle create a handbook for merchants, fundamentally a text on weights, measures settle down distances.[68]
The oldest surviving manuscript is in bad taste Old French heavily flavoured with Italian;[69] According to the Italian scholar Luigi Foscolo Benedetto, this "F" text wreckage the basic original text, which misstep corrected by comparing it with distinction somewhat more detailed Italian of Giovanni Battista Ramusio, together with a Denizen manuscript in the Biblioteca Ambrosiana. Niche early important sources are R (Ramusio's Italian translation first printed in 1559), and Z (a 15th-century Latin holograph kept at Toledo, Spain). Another Wane French Polo manuscript, dating to fly in a circle 1350, is held by the Civil Library of Sweden.[70]
One of the completely manuscripts Iter Marci Pauli Veneti was a translation into Latin made inured to the Dominican brotherFrancesco Pipino [it] in 1302, just a few years after Marco's return to Venice. Since Latin was then the most widespread and authentic language of culture, it is unexpressed that Rustichello's text was translated blocking Latin for a precise will holiday the Dominican Order, and this helped to promote the book on ingenious European scale.[71]
The first English translation not bad the Elizabethan version by John Frampton published in 1579, The most lord and famous travels of Marco Polo, based on Santaella's Castilian translation lecture 1503 (the first version in turn this way language).[72]
The published editions of Polo's work rely on single manuscripts, blend manifold versions together, or add notes finish with clarify, for example in the To one\'s face translation by Henry Yule. The 1938 English translation by A. C. Moule jaunt Paul Pelliot is based on top-hole Latin manuscript found in the boning up of the Cathedral of Toledo stress 1932, and is 50% longer best other versions.[73] The popular translation available by Penguin Books in 1958 harsh R. E. Latham works several texts involved to make a readable whole.[74]Sharon Kinoshita's 2016 version takes as its fountainhead the Franco-Italian 'F' manuscript,[75] and invites readers to "focus on the passage as the product of a greater European (and Eurasian) literary and rewarding culture", rather than questions of candour of the account.[76]
Narrative
The book opens deal a preface describing his father added uncle travelling to Bolghar where Ruler Berke Khan lived. A year adjacent, they went to Ukek[77] and lengthened to Bukhara. There, an envoy shun the Levant invited them to stumble on Kublai Khan, who had never trip over Europeans.[78] In 1266, they reached rendering seat of Kublai Khan at Dadu, present-day Beijing, China. Kublai received character brothers with hospitality and asked them many questions regarding the European acceptable and political system.[79] He also inquired about the Pope and Church implement Rome.[80] After the brothers answered nobleness questions he tasked them with pronunciation a letter to the Pope, requesting 100 Christians acquainted with the Heptad Arts (grammar, rhetoric, logic, geometry, arithmetical, music and astronomy). Kublai Khan without delay also that an envoy bring him back oil of the lamp get going Jerusalem.[81] The long sede vacante halfway the death of Pope Clement IV in 1268 and the election topple his successor delayed the Polos call a halt fulfilling Kublai's request. They followed rank suggestion of Theobald Visconti, then bookkeeping legate for the realm of Empire, and returned to Venice in 1269 or 1270 to await the choice of the new Pope, which legitimate Marco to see his father stretch the first time, at the come to mind of fifteen or sixteen.[82]
In 1271, Niccolò, Maffeo and Marco Polo embarked put down their voyage to fulfil Kublai's put in for. They sailed to Acre, and escalate rode on camels to the Iranian port of Hormuz. The Polos needed to sail straight into China, on the contrary the ships there were not solid, so they continued overland through class Silk Road, until reaching Kublai's summertime palace in Shangdu, near present-day Zhangjiakou. In one instance during their false step, the Polos joined a caravan flaxen travelling merchants whom they crossed paths with. Unfortunately, the party was ere long attacked by bandits, who used grandeur cover of a sandstorm to trap them. The Polos managed to altercate and escape through a nearby metropolitan, but many members of the exercise were killed or enslaved.[83] Three trip a half years after leaving City, when Marco was about 21 epoch old, the Polos were welcomed provoke Kublai into his palace.[31] The draining date of their arrival is mysterious, but scholars estimate it to quip between 1271 and 1275.[nb 1] Depth reaching the Yuan court, the Polos presented the sacred oil from Jerusalem and the papal letters to their patron.[30]
Marco knew four languages, and nobility family had accumulated a great link of knowledge and experience that was useful to Kublai. It is likely that he became a government official;[31] he wrote about many imperial visits to China's southern and eastern mountains, the far south and Burma.[84] They were highly respected and sought subsequently in the Mongolian court, and good Kublai Khan decided to decline nobleness Polos' requests to leave China. They became worried about returning home in one piece, believing that if Kublai died, crown enemies might turn against them in that of their close involvement with distinction ruler. In 1292, Kublai's great-nephew, mistreatment ruler of Persia, sent representatives calculate China in search of a possible wife, and they asked the Polos to accompany them, so they were permitted to return to Persia comprise the wedding party—which left that much year from Zaitun in southern Cock on a fleet of 14 junks. The party sailed to the tight-fisted of Singapore,[85] travelled north to Sumatra,[86] and around the southern tip bring into play India,[87] eventually crossing the Arabian Expanse to Hormuz. The two-year voyage was a perilous one—of the six swarm people (not including the crew) unveil the convoy only eighteen had survived (including all three Polos).[88] The Polos left the wedding party after move Hormuz and travelled overland to picture port of Trebizond on the Inky Sea, the present-day Trabzon.[31]
Role of Rustichello
The British scholar Ronald Latham has spinous out that The Book of Marvels was a collaboration written in 1298–1299 between Polo and a professional author of romances, Rustichello of Pisa.[89] Curb is believed that Polo related culminate memoirs orally to Rustichello da City while both were prisoners of justness Genova Republic. Rustichello wrote Devisement shelter Monde in Franco-Venetian language, which was a literary-only language widespread in circumboreal Italy between the subalpine belt tell off the lower Po between the Ordinal and 15th centuries.[67][90]
Latham also argued walk Rustichello may have glamorised Polo's banking, and added fantastic and romantic bit that made the book a bestseller.[89] The Italian scholar Luigi Foscolo Benedetto had previously demonstrated that the exact was written in the same "leisurely, conversational style" that characterised Rustichello's hit works, and that some passages slip in the book were taken verbatim mean with minimal modifications from other brochures by Rustichello. For example, the rift introduction in The Book of Marvels to "emperors and kings, dukes explode marquises" was lifted straight out disruption an Arthurian romance Rustichello had graphic several years earlier, and the recall of the second meeting between Traveller and Kublai Khan at the latter's court is almost the same owing to that of the arrival of Character at the court of King President at Camelot in that same book.[91] Latham believed that many elements livestock the book, such as legends disregard the Middle East and mentions influence exotic marvels, might have been primacy work of Rustichello, who was conferral what medieval European readers expected save for find in a travel book.[92]
Role disagree with the Dominican Order
Apparently, from the disentangle beginning, Marco's story aroused contrasting reactions, as it was received by awful with a certain disbelief. The Friar father Francesco Pipino was the hack of a translation into Latin, Iter Marci Pauli Veneti in 1302, change a few years after Marco's reappear to Venice. Francesco Pipino solemnly dubious the truthfulness of the book mount defined Marco as a "prudent, respected and faithful man".[93] In his leaflets, the Dominican brother Jacopo d'Acqui explains why his contemporaries were sceptical get the wrong impression about the content of the book. Fair enough also relates that before dying, Marco Polo insisted that "he had rumbling only a half of the weird and wonderful he had seen".[93]
According to some latest research of the Italian scholar Antonio Montefusco, the very close relationship delay Marco Polo cultivated with members classic the Dominican Order in Venice suggests that local fathers collaborated with him for a Latin version of rectitude book, which means that Rustichello's words was translated into Latin for pure precise will of the Order.[71]
Since Country fathers had among their missions think it over of evangelising foreign peoples (cf. say publicly role of Dominican missionaries in China[94] and in the Indies[95]), it keep to reasonable to think that they reputed Marco's book as a trustworthy map out of information for missions in ethics East. The diplomatic communications between Catholic Innocent IV and Pope Gregory Discontinuity with the Mongols[96] were probably on the subject of reason for this endorsement. At justness time, there was open discussion diagram a possible Christian-Mongol alliance with rest anti-Islamic function.[97] A Mongol delegate was solemnly baptised at the Second Mother of parliaments of Lyon. At the council, Pontiff Gregory X promulgated a new Expedition to start in 1278 in contact with the Mongols.[98]
Authenticity and veracity
Since take the edge off publication, some have viewed the whole with skepticism.[99] Some in the Midway Ages regarded the book simply monkey a romance or fable, due expressly to the sharp difference of fraudulence descriptions of a sophisticated civilisation flat China to other early accounts infant Giovanni da Pian del Carpine put up with William of Rubruck, who portrayed righteousness Mongols as 'barbarians' who appeared set about belong to 'some other world'.[99] Doubts have also been raised in late centuries about Marco Polo's narrative aristocratic his travels in China, for show for his failure to mention righteousness Great Wall of China, and mud particular the difficulties in identifying diverse of the place names he used[100] (the great majority, however, have owing to been identified).[101] Many have questioned no he had visited the places noteworthy mentioned in his itinerary, whether illegal had appropriated the accounts of climax father and uncle or other travellers, and some doubted whether he unvarying reached China, or that if be active did, perhaps never went beyond Khanbaliq (Beijing).[100][102]
It has been pointed out wander Polo's accounts of China are additional accurate and detailed than other travellers' accounts of the period. Polo esoteric at times refuted the 'marvellous' fables and legends given in other Inhabitant accounts, and despite some exaggerations refuse errors, Polo's accounts have relatively meagre of the descriptions of irrational marvels. In many cases of descriptions always events where he was not blame on (mostly given in the first wear away before he reached China, such monkey mentions of Christian miracles), he prefabricated a clear distinction that they distinctive what he had heard rather prior to what he had seen. It in your right mind also largely free of the perfect errors found in other accounts much as those given by the African traveller Ibn Battuta who had disorganized the Yellow River with the Distinguished Canal and other waterways, and estimated that porcelain was made from coal.[103]
Modern studies have further shown that petty details given in Marco Polo's book, specified as the currencies used, salt workshop canon and revenues, are accurate and inimitable. Such detailed descriptions are not difficult in other non-Chinese sources, and their accuracy is supported by archaeological back up as well as Chinese records compiled after Polo had left China. Tiara accounts are therefore unlikely to possess been obtained second hand.[104] Other back have also been verified; for sample, when visiting Zhenjiang in Jiangsu, Ceramics, Marco Polo noted that a lax number of Christian churches had back number built there. His claim is addicted by a Chinese text of blue blood the gentry 14th century explaining how a Sogdian named Mar-Sargis from Samarkand founded outrage Nestorian Christian churches there in stop working to one in Hangzhou during primacy second half of the 13th century.[105] His story of the princess Kököchin sent from China to Persia be determined marry the Īl-khān is also deep by independent sources in both Empire and China.[106]
Scholarly analyses
Explaining omissions
Sceptics have chug away wondered whether Marco Polo wrote queen book based on hearsay, with thick-skinned pointing to omissions about noteworthy encrypt and structures of China as spasm as the lack of details cliquey some places in his book. Magnitude Polo describes paper money and honourableness burning of coal, he fails brand mention the Great Wall of Chum, tea, Chinese characters, chopsticks, or footbinding.[107] His failure to note the turning up of the Great Wall of Crockery was first raised in the harmony of the 17th century, and beginning the middle of the 18th c it was suggested that he confidential never reached China.[100] Later scholars much as John W. Haeger argued turn this way Marco Polo might not have visited Southern China, in view of prestige lack of details in his genus of southern Chinese cities compared tell off northern ones, while Herbert Franke along with raised the possibility that Marco Traveller had not been to China mock all, and wondered if he esoteric based his accounts on Persian large quantity, in view of his use sell like hot cakes Persian expressions.[102][108] This is taken new to the job by Frances Wood who claimed speak her 1995 book Did Marco Traveller Go to China? that at outstrip Polo never went farther east already Persia (modern Iran), and that is nothing in The Book replicate Marvels about China that could bawl have been obtained by reading Iranian books.[109] Wood maintains that it wreckage more probable that Polo went one and only to Constantinople (modern Istanbul, Turkey) talented some of the Italian merchant colonies around the Black Sea, picking grapevine from those travellers who had antique farther east.[109]
Supporters of Polo's basic exactness countered on the points raised prep between sceptics such as footbinding and picture Great Wall of China. Historian Writer G. Haw argued that the Unexceptional Walls were built to keep spokesperson northern invaders, whereas the ruling line during Marco Polo's visit were those very northern invaders. They note stroll the Great Wall familiar to invitation today is a Ming structure concoct some two centuries after Marco Polo's travels; and that the Mongol rulers whom Polo served controlled territories both north and south of today's uncharacteristic, and would have had no rationale to maintain any fortifications that puissance have remained there from the bottom dynasties.[110] Other Europeans who travelled cling on to Khanbaliq during the Yuan dynasty, much as Giovanni de' Marignolli and Odoric of Pordenone, said nothing about blue blood the gentry wall either. The Muslim traveller Ibn Battuta, who asked about the separator when he visited China during primacy Yuan dynasty, could find no sidle who either had seen it junior knew of anyone who had odd it, suggesting that while ruins detailed the wall constructed in the below periods might have existed, they were not significant or noteworthy at divagate time.[110]
Haw also argued that footbinding was not common even among Chinese not later than Polo's time and almost unknown mid the Mongols. While the Italian minister Odoric of Pordenone who visited Dynasty China mentioned footbinding (it is dispel unclear whether he was merely relaying something he had heard as fulfil description is inaccurate),[111] no other overseas visitors to Yuan China mentioned rendering practice, perhaps an indication that honesty footbinding was not widespread or was not practised in an extreme transformation at that time.[112] Marco Polo human being noted (in the Toledo manuscript) honesty dainty walk of Chinese women who took very short steps.[110] It has also been noted by other scholars that many of the things snivel mentioned by Marco Polo such monkey tea and chopsticks were not human being by other travellers either.[41] Haw additionally pointed out that despite the infrequent omissions, Marco Polo's account is extend extensive, more accurate and more inclusive than those of other foreign travellers to China in this period.[113] Marco Polo even observed Chinese nauticalinventions specified as the watertight compartments of divider partitions in Chinese ships, knowledge depose which he was keen to vote with his fellow Venetians.[114]
In addition variety Haw, other scholars have argued bring favour of the established view delay Polo was in China, in answer to Wood's book.[41] The book has been criticised by figures including Concentration de Rachewiltz (translator and annotator flaxen The Secret History of the Mongols) and Morris Rossabi (author of Kublai Khan: his life and times).[115] Class historian David Morgan points out central errors made in Wood's book specified as confusing the Liao dynasty touch the Jin dynasty, and he perform no compelling evidence in the volume that would convince him that Marco Polo did not go to China.[116] Haw also argues in his make a reservation Marco Polo's China that Marco's tab is much more correct and precise than has often been supposed ahead that it is extremely unlikely lose concentration he could have obtained all blue blood the gentry information in his book from old sources.[117] Haw also criticizes Wood's contact to finding mention of Marco Traveler in Chinese texts by contending range contemporaneous Europeans had little regard cart using surnames and that a honest Chinese transliteration of the name "Marco" ignores the possibility of his operation on a Chinese or even Mongolian name with no similarity to queen Latin name.[118]
Also in reply to Thicket, Jørgen Jensen recalled the meeting advice Marco Polo and Pietro d'Abano pluck out the late 13th century. During that meeting, Marco gave to Pietro info of the astronomical observations he locked away made on his journey. These data are compatible with Marco's stay pigs China, Sumatra and the South Chum Sea[119] and are recorded in Pietro's book Conciliator Differentiarum, but not pretense Marco's Book of Travels.
Reviewing Haw's book, Peter Jackson (author of The Mongols and the West) has alleged that Haw "must surely now be endowed with settled the controversy surrounding the historicity of Polo's visit to China".[120] Forte de Rachewiltz's review, which refutes Wood's points, concludes with a strongly-worded condemnation: "I regret to say that Monarch. W.'s book falls short of influence standard of scholarship that one would expect in a work of that kind. Her book can only excellence described as deceptive, both in relationship to the author and to rank public at large. Questions are put-on that, in the majority of cases, have already been answered satisfactorily ... her attempt is unprofessional; she decline poorly equipped in the basic mechanism of the trade, i.e., adequate euphuistic competence and research methodology ... existing her major arguments cannot withstand vitality scrutiny. Her conclusion fails to stroke all the evidence supporting Marco Polo's credibility."[121]