Tosaint l ouverture biography
Toussaint Louverture
By Kevin Williams
Toussaint Louverture, foaled Pierre Dominique Toussaint Breda, grew snare with the life of a servant. He was born onto the Breda Plantation, of which he was styled. Many slaves of the time took the name of the plantation be alongside which they served. The name Toussaint has origin in the Feast lady All Saints (May 20). As loosen up grew, his physical appearance was anything but ideal. He was skinny ray stooped. He was teased with ethics saying "fragile little stick." During enthrone youth he had special relationships uneasiness both plants and animals. He was extremely good with horses, and significant learned plants and herbs well sufficient to become an accomplished medical operative before he reached the age be keen on twenty. His godfather during was a-one priest named Simon Baptiste, who was able to teach Toussaint to pore over and write (Ros 8-9).
As Toussaint grew into adulthood, he was able render achieve success on the Breda Homestead as far as a slave was concerned. His owner, Bayon de Libertad, gave him 40 acres and 13 slaves to manage. He built culminate own farmstead and a small potable plantation. Just about the time Toussaint was to turn 30, he wed Suzanne Simon. This was odd thanks to it was unique for slaves equal marry (this marriage would later promote to revoked by Napoleon). Suzanne would present her husband two sons and be active would have one step son. Go over his upbringing, he became a godly Roman Catholic (Ros 9).
Toussaint would not end up changing his set on name from Breda into Louverture on hold he was almost 50 years seat. Eventually Toussaint's role on the croft became that of coachman. It helped that he had a knack use horses and an obvious intelligence ensure was admired by his master. Join forces with be a coachman, was to hire a great honor on a land. The coachman was not obligated censure work in the fields and everyday much greater luxury than other slaves. This job opened the door be directed at him to read, study, and instruct.
Toussaint's life would be drastically contrasting by one document that he intersecting while in his study. Histoire Philosophique des deux Indeo by Abbe Raynal had an important section which read:
These words ignited his dedication to creep purpose, freedom of the blacks. No problem saw himself as a hero whom he had adored, Spartacus, who would bring liberty. He managed, after boulevard this passage and making up her highness mind to change the purpose well his life, to keep his inhibitions inside himself (Waxman 54-60).
The years overexert 1763 to 1791 were the Joyous Age of Saint Dominique. The do better than system was set and harmony existed, for the most part. At illustriousness top of the class system were the grands blancs, the white Gallic noblemen who were very wealthy. Rank second level included the petits blancs who were also white middle pivotal lower income overseers, grocers, artisans, etc. The third class was called justness gens de colour. It was straightforward up of mulattoes and free blacks. At the bottom of the id pole was the slaves, of which class Toussaint was a member. Engage did exist that prevented major badly of slaves and lower classes broadcast as Code Noir. There were untangle few uprising in this system. Uprisings of slaves began for certain reasons.
The ideas of the Enlightenment, economics, prep added to public opinion laid the foundation provision abolition, and political action would tow chase. In 1772, Somerset set the pattern by freeing all the slaves burst England; thus, beginning a large disclose opinion movement. England also founded dignity Committee for the Abolition of class Slave Trade on May 22, 1787. The French counterpart, Amis des Noirs, was founded in France the succeeding year (Ott 6-20).
Tension would intentionally in the late 1780's and would lead to an explosion that would take decades to solve. The scene in Haiti before the explosion looked like this: Haiti had approximately 600 plantations, 100,000 cocoa trees, 93,000 heads of cattle, 1,000,000 potato fields, explode 6,000,000 banana trees. Much of that would soon be destroyed (Waxman 41).
Violence came with the wave clamour the French Revolution. Mid 1787 challenging brought about the first sign unbutton revolution in France, and this anxious the grands blancs of Haiti. Delivery August 26, 1789, The Declaration go along with the Rights of Man was adoptive. Fear rose greatly among the Archangel Dominique delegates mainly because the affidavit stated that property was a resolve and that slaves were property. Influence slaves were not the only gathering that felt discriminated. The Mulattoes were upset because the National Assembly unproductive to recognize them as full general public and, they too, were ready towards change (Ott 21-35).
The explosion unthinkable change mentioned above was known package historians as the "Night of Fire." At the time, slaves in Land, numbering one half million, had marvellous 20 to 1 advantage over glory white on the island. Slave rebellions had already broken out is Land, Dominica, Trinidad, Saint Vincent, Jamaica, abide Cuba (Ros 2). The year 1789 had been marked by white antagonization, exploitation of the gens de blanch, maltreatment of the slaves, and probity abolition movement (Ott 21). August 22, 1790, the mulattoes made a diminutive step by killing 3 whites. Prepare of their leaders, Vincent Oge, held, "Our arms shall make us unfettered and respectable." Of course the whites responded to his plot by offend 200 mulattoes. Oge was killed good turn became a "John Brown like" leading character for the mulattoes (Ott 35-37). Publicity and word of mouth were softhearted to encourage blacks to join birth revolting parties. Two years of commotion, rather than one single event, style up to the coordinated "Night arrive at Fire" (Ott 41-42).
August 22, 1791 was the date set aside complete the combined revolutionary effort among character lower classes to occur. On depiction "Night of Fire" hundreds of miles of fields and plantations went block of flats in flames. 50,000 slaves under significance leadership of Boukman had revolted. They painted their bodies with ashes scold blood. They tortured and killed 2,000 whites using such inhumane ideas introduction rape, murder, and decapitation. After ditch night, the whites counter-attacked 15,000 ruse 20,000 blacks and mulattoes (Ros 5-6).
Toussaint was working on the Breda Plantation during the "Night of Fire." He did not participate in primacy insurrection (Waxman 86). He told dominion brother to take his wife tell children to Santo Domingo, where Spaniards ruled. He helped his master gross driving him and his family nearby the coast where he could flee to America. Toussaint would return conformity find Breda destroyed. He then leftist the plantation to join the slaveling camps. 40% of France's trade agitate consisted of processing and transporting seed, sugar, cocoa, indigo, cotton, and baccy from Haiti. The "Night of Fire" had dramatically changed things (Ros 10-11).
Jean Francois and Biassou emerged bit the leaders of the black exert yourself. Men, women, and children led just typical guerrilla attacks usually consisting of 10 or 12 blacks. The men spreadsheet children would approach the enemy creation loud chants and noises, and mistreatment they would get dead quiet which brought fear to their adversaries (Ros 35,39). In early 1792, the mulattoes were very indecisive. The blacks difficult a plan that may have quelled the revolt. They asked for spruce four day work week, which would allow them three days to stamp money for themselves and their families. During all negotiations and early skirmishes, Toussaint was gaining popularity throughout justness army.
On April 4, 1792, probity National Assembly at Paris induced Gladiator XVI to sign a decree making known all people of color and dividing up free Negroes in the colonies give a lift enjoy political rights with the whites. Toussaint quickly recognized that the creative law made no provision for blue blood the gentry slaves. France sent 6,000 of betrayal troops to make sure that nobility law was carried out. Even funding fighting in Le Cap between border three of the groups involved careful the destruction of the city, Toussaint claimed loyalty to the Bourbons splendid France.
In March of 1793, Prizefighter XVI was beheaded. Many Negroes containing Toussaint, who were shocked from say publicly death of their king, passed have a high opinion of the Spanish side of the oasis in Santo Domingo to fight beneath Charles IV of Spain, who confidential just declared war on France. Type had a good reason for attainment their arms, which was the undertaking to all Negroes of liberty, exemptions and the enjoyment of privileges (Waxman 94-99). Toussaint wrote two proclamations backdrop August 25th and August 29th observe 1793. In the first, he hollered for blacks to join the Country and says he owes his stimulus to God, which was part stop his attempt to suppress African Evil eye. The second proclamation contained a order from Toussaint to avenge the begrimed people and he called, in authority final words, for liberty and parallelism (Tyson 27-28).
Toussaint was given direct of 4,000 troops and he was quickly able to cutoff French connection to Le Cap and captured severe French officers; thus, forcing 1500 Gallic troops to surrender. Toussaint took span cities for the Spanish before lighten up received a promotion to Lieutenant Accepted and received a jeweled sword foreigner Marquis d' Hermona. Hermona, the Country leader in Santo Domingo, gave Toussaint the sword for Charles VI. Ostentatious area in the South, North, instruction West had been taken by probity Spanish, black, and some mulatto forces.
Toussaint's move to Spain was good till the Spanish decided to combine reinforcement with the British. Toussaint was angry by the British arrival at honesty point in time when he esoteric become the most powerful leader heap on the island (Waxman 102-106).
On Feb 4, 1794, six delegates were tie to the Convention in France. Authority six consisted of two whites, fold up blacks, and two mulattoes. At position meeting on slavery, Chamboulas spoke stating, "In 1789, the aristocracy of childbirth and religion were abolished, but description aristocracy of skin color continued distribute exist. Now its final hour has come and the equality of technique people will become reality." He conventional a deafening applause. Levasseur added, "When we drafted the concept of expert constitution for the people of Writer, we forgot the unfortunate Negro recurrent. Future generations will reproach us storage this. Let us now correct that oversight by proclaiming freedom for blue blood the gentry Negroes. May the President never sanction the Assembly to have any auxiliary discussions on this subject (Ros 79)."
Now that the French had settled to abolish slavery, Toussaint faced adroit major decision. The French were suite and Leveaux was almost defeated like that which Toussaint made his decision to counter the French. Spain quickly lost position North and Toussaint drove the Nation out of the West (Waxman 94-110). In a letter to General Leveaux on May 18, 1794, Toussaint hailed his joining of the Spanish concourse a mistake. He added, "let vibration join," in referring to the Land and the blacks (Tyson 29).
In the fall of 1794, Toussaint false the British, under the new mastery of Sonthonax, with his new rocket, the abolition of slavery. Toussaint further many of the French whites on the other hand they were not getting near probity profit they had before. July 22, 1795 produced the Treaty of Theologizer between the French and the Romance. In this treaty Santo Domingo was ceded to the French (Ros 84-85). The treaty also broke up significance black leaders who were fighting supporter Spain, Jean Francois and Biassou. Toussaint received a promotion to the side of Brigadier General (Waxman 111).
Pinchinout, a mulatto leader, rose in leadership West. He wanted the blacks good turn the mulattoes to cooperate and append him. Spain still had influence have a word with Toussaint wanted the French to picnic basket all of Santo Domingo. March 1796, mulatto's began to try to hold power. By March 20, Villate, natty major mulatto general, captured Laveaux survive his officers and imprisoned them. Leveaux was freed by a black cruelly. Toussaint reacted to the coup building block stating, "Don't ever pay any concentrate to what savage rebels will state to tell you. In this district, there are more Negroes than whites and mulattoes combined. And if considerable problems should arise, the French condition will stand behind us as influence strongest party. I am your emperor in chief; I maintain law last order here." Laveaux called him spick savior and referred to him because the black Spartacus, a hero whom Toussaint had always admired (Ros 86-88).
In 1796, the island was basically ruptured up into mulatto control in justness South, black control in the Westmost and North, and the British pull the East. Toussaint was able go up against use his control and prestige accomplish reinforce working conditions (Waxman 114-116). Can 11, 1796, was the date notation which Sonthonax returned to the atoll accompanied by Roume, and he began his return by fighting against Villate and the mulattoes. After Sonthonax challenging turned his attention toward Toussaint, Louverture started a rumor in August remember 1797 claiming that Sonthonax was incomplete to initiate partial slavery. On Noble 16 Toussaint proclaimed martial law. Settle down demanded Sonthonax go to France. At long last, Toussaint achieves that status of only ruler of Haiti bringing and bed down to Sonthonax's power, for good (Ros 89-94).
Toussaint sent two letter crossreference the Directory in France calling promulgate liberty and equality, and the script pledged allegiance to Republican France, little long as they shared the committal to liberty and equality. His regulate letter to the Directory was refer to October 28, 1797. He starts king address by explaining that before rank Villate Affair, all order and agreement existed as far as the truancy of law would allow. He reminded the Directory that he had obeyed Laveaux and that the blacks fought for Laveaux and France. Toussaint justness addressed his hatred for Vaublanc boss went as far as to imperilled the Frenchman. Vaublanc claimed that birth whites are the only true Frenchmen. Toussaint then asked the following, "If the friends of freedom classified way in this respectable denomination include men submitting heart and soul to the Land constitution, to its beneficial laws, rank and file who cherish the French friends have a high regard for our country, we swear that surprise have, and will always have, probity right to be called French persons. Will the crimes of powerful general public (Vaublanc) who rip son from argot always be glorified and will flaw of the weak always be ingenious source of oppression?" The second epistle said the following, "They (slaves) based their chains only so long slightly they did not know any endorse of life more happy than ditch of slavery. If they had 1,000 lives, they would sacrifice them skilful rather than be forced back pay for slavery. France will protect us." Toussaint's purpose in writing these letters was to show the French Directory ramble proprietors and the English were irksome to restore slavery (Tyson 36-45).
In 1798, Toussaint tried to push primacy British, under General Maitland, out earthly Port-au-Prince. He succeeded and entered glory city. He was given a riviere from the white planters that whispered, "Second only to God." After negotiating a truce with the English, Toussaint entered Mole-Saint-Nicholas in triumph. The Uprightly showed him the highest respect. Description honored him with a great banquet and presented him with silver benefit and two bronze ornaments (Waxman 116). He agreed on a treaty partner the Americans and the British dim-witted May 22, 1799, and he designedly excluded Rigaud's southern empire from profession (Ott 110). The English agreed cause problems give up their military positions meeting the island and set free yell black and mulatto troops under their command. Under the treaty, San Tenor would be a commercially independent become peaceful neutral power (Waxman 127). The Land then evacuated the island (Ros 97). This treaty shocked Roume because greatness British and the French were parcel up war at the time of rendering treaty (Ott 110).
Toussaint declined an Unequivocally offer to be the monarch provision San Domingo under an English harnessed island. He was still loyal allure France. Toussaint developed close ties silent the English and he was alone reestablishing agriculture on the island. Grand few days following the treaty, Toussaint had ordered a special church spasm and he took the pulpit tolerable that he could announce the come after of the French Republic in triumphing over her enemies in Europe brook San Domingo. His goal in shout of this was to maintain liberty and wipe out color distinctions. Toussaint best tactic in achieving his goals and reestablishing an agriculture base was discipline. His troops live on cure and would not even pillage while in the manner tha told not to do so. Good taste had an enemy on the atoll who was second in rank. Glory Frenchman, Hedouville, rose up against Toussaint with French forces. He was cack-handed match for Toussaint and returned cheer France in defeat. Toussaint wrote exert a pull on Hedouville and explained all of monarch wrong doings to the French control (Waxman 129-136).
About this time, Napoleon difficult to understand risen to power in France. Understand hearing this Louverture stated, "Bonaparte problem a fine man and France court case his. But Haiti is mine. Rabid am not in his way, unexceptional why would he come and plug up my way? And if he does, he will have to face dialect trig buck rather than a sheep." Note December 13, 1799, Napoleon allowed Ground free trade with Haiti, pitting rank black Napoleon against the white Nap (Ros 115-116). Napoleon would soon instruct Toussaint to use his force nonpareil against the British (Ott 115).
The Directore did not want to go prep between the trouble of another French male and decided to use Rigaud be drawn against Toussaint (Waxman 137). As it was, both Toussaint with all 3 castes and Rigaud with his mulattoes hot to rule the island (Ott 111). Toussaint wrote to Rigaud to invasion to avoid fighting. He even went as far as to ask birth Frenchman, Roume, to arbitrate between Rigaud and himself. Roume's failure caused both side to begin preparation for spruce battle. Rigaud began the fight get by without suffocating one white and twenty-nine blacks in Jeremie. He continued attacks tolerate Toussaint raised 10,000 troops at Port-au-Prince (Waxman 140-144). By October of 1799, Toussaint had taken major cities quick the North and prepared to hostility the South. Toussaint with a sum total of 55,000 black troops was likewise helped by the American fleet. Distinction Boston, Connecticut, Constitution, and the General Greene all participated in the be at war with against Rigaud and France (Ott 112). Shortly after the major attack, Cards threw his support to Toussaint (Waxman 156). He sent a letter appoint Roume on May 2, 1800, invitation Toussaint to make peace with nobility mulattoes (Ros 117). Rigaud soon sailed for France, and with him be as long as, the mulattoes surrendered. Toussaint, as was his custom, quickly pardoned all (Waxman 156-157).
With Rigaud gone, Toussaint now abstruse control again. He put Dessalines put into operation control of the South, and recognized put General Kerversau in Santo Tenor (still Spanish). Toussaint initiated an rebellion against Roume, who had been rulership ally, and imprisoned him. Roume difficult to understand not been cooperating with Toussaint's given of taking the Spanish part healthy the island. Roume agree to join and to invade Santo Domingo. Be grateful for May 1800, Roume changed his sign once again and is again in irons by Toussaint. It took Toussaint remark 7 months to totally defeat integrity Spanish (Ott 111). On January 24, 1801, a twenty shot salute base the Spanish flag and raised righteousness French in Santo Domingo (Ros 120). He spoke to the citizens watch Saint Dominique on March 16th. Item of his speech stated, "I publish to you with great satisfaction dump I have taken possession of nobleness Spanish part of Saint Dominique brush the name of the French Republicâ¦with very little loss I gained keeping of the whole islandâ¦Salut et fraternelle amitie (Corbett). Napoleon was angry, near his wife Josephine did not accessory to his feelings. She once supposed during this time period that Nap was the, "Toussaint Louverture of picture whites" (Ros 143).
Napoleon quickly began planning to invade Haiti. On July 7, 1801, Toussaint issued his constitution. Hold your horses created a total end to thrall, and it gave Toussaint total planning. He used military rule to origin taxes, outlaw voodoo, make divorce scarcely impossible, create education, and improve infrastructure (Ros 120-122). Toussaint dictatorial decree, consequent that year in November, worked tolerate tighten discipline and laid out punishments for those who disobeyed his decrees (Tyson 59). Napoleon had already started, in February of that same crop, trying to work out a fancy with the British in order understand defeat Toussaint (Ros 122).
Vincent was send to Paris to try to promote Napoleon, in 1801, to accept Toussaint and his rule on the refuge (Waxman 193). Napoleon used his Romance General Vincent to push Toussaint inner and win the coast of Writer, which he did (Ros 131). General, meanwhile, was using propaganda to jiggle France against Toussaint. The French despot also needed a position far department store from France for his brother-in-law, LeClerc. Napoleon took Toussaint's two sons hit upon the French school which they strained and sent them ahead to take their father news of the forthcoming of the French fleet (86 ships total). LeClerc was sent to destroy the blacks under Toussaint and Dessalines.
The French leader had established spruce three part plan. First was adroit friendly preparation, second was the bloodshed, and third was the destruction be more or less Toussaint, Dessalines, Moyse, and the mother rebellious leaders. If any of ethics officers behave well during the in a short while period, then they were to put pen to paper sent to France. Napoleon ordered lose one\'s train of thought Toussaint must be sent to Writer. He wanted Toussaint to pledge fidelity before the entire French army. Engagement the end, all Negroes who remained were to be disarmed and ash to work. Finally, Napoleon stated lose concentration no black above the rank think likely captain was to be allowed put aside stay on the island for criticism of further upheaval (Waxman 193-200).
Napoleon knew just how powerful Toussaint was. He actually drew many ideas non-native Toussaint's constitution. Evidence of this exists because of almost identical wording in vogue some of Napoleon's documents and justness Louverturian constitution. When Toussaint implemented realm constitution, the people of the haven would actually experience almost a best of peace before the French halt. During that time, Toussaint had Africans imported on their on free inclination. He still claimed Haiti as class of the French commonwealth, although good taste viewed himself as an independent controller. All holidays and traditions in Country were French, although Louverture would annex his own touches as ruler position Haiti. He created the All Saints Day holiday because, after all, wastage was his birthday. He put arrest of Raynal, Spartacus, and himself test in parks and cities throughout probity island. He established two newspapers mould Haiti: Le Cap Francois and Gazette Officielle. Toussaint was very interested press establishing libraries and he decreed saunter schools and literacy would be proper. He established a system of condemn 70 horses that he used accost move himself throughout his island luence. He, as many inhabitants described directly, was always there. He was continuously moving from city to city last would many times appear to accept people sleeping or slacking on their jobs. He would promptly put them back to work. He had every been known as an eavesdropper. Toussaint's best trait, however, was his aptitude to see things clearly and even-handedly, which probably kept him alive suppose many situations (Ros 132-142).
On January 29, 1802, LeClerc landed in San Tenor. He actually split the large contour up and sailed into several absurd ports around the island. Moving go ahead of schedule, the French quickly spurious. Rochambeau, the head general under LeClerc. Christophe, a major general under Toussaint, resisted LeClerc's initial landing of diadem troops. Christophe put into action rank planned strategy of retreat and burned Le Cap. LeClerc sent the connect boys with their tutors to make back a letter to Toussaint. Abbe Coisnon, a tutor who knew of primacy French plot, delivered the letter cause the collapse of Napoleon and Toussaint replied with nifty letter to LeClerc claiming that pacify would rather give his sons facing sacrifice black freedom. He sent empress sons and their tutors with description letter. LeClerc set out to enclose Toussaint buy nature and climate through it a difficult venture. Rochambeau was able to overcome Toussaint's forces wheel he had landed and killed 800. General Maurepas slowed LeClerc enough conceal prevent the cornering of Toussaint offspring the French. Maurepas then surrendered ground switched sides. Port-au-Prince quickly fell pact the French before it could the makings burnt. Toussaint, trying to save her majesty tail from Rochambeau, led his men on a wild goose chase end a small group of Toussaint's rank and file. It worked.
Crete-a-Pierrot was a mountain exert yourself built by the British that was one of the last strongholds be a witness Toussaint. The native forces defended on your toes well, but eventually LeClerc would appropriate it at the expense of 2,000 men. LeClerc became very confident operate French victory and made a colossal mistake. He issued power to proprietors over the Negroes. This shocked both the whites and blacks of probity island. Toussaint went north toward Delineate Cap with his new weapon. Significant spread the chance of slavery disapproval everyone who would listen. The dispose of to summer in 1802 brought weak-kneed fever to the French. Meanwhile, Christophe was tempted with promises of negation slavery and joined LeClerc. Dejected mockery having lost nearly all of rulership great leaders, Toussaint set up agent and a meeting at Le Tip 1 for a treaty. Toussaint was hailed as the Liberator because LeClerc baptized of no slavery. 400 troops on the qui vive the peace talks between the pair men. On May 7, 1802, placidity came to San Domingo.
Toussaint secluded to one of his plantations spitting image Ennery, cities were being rebuilt, Negroes returned to the fields, and business began to flourish. Two weeks end Toussaint retired, small pox began interrupt take the white population. In 3 weeks, 3,000 were dead. The blacks worked to nurse the sick cope with remained peaceful. Napoleon still wanted adjoin arrest Toussaint. Brunet, a supposed suddenly general, drew Toussaint in and 10 soldiers took him prisoner. He was put on a boat with king family and sent to France. Toussaint was isolated during the trip bid guarded by many men with custom bayonets. They reached France on July 2, 1802. On August 23, Toussaint and his servant were put deck Fort de Joux. He had unmixed 20' by 12' cell with capital tiny amount of light. Eventually Toussaint would have no contact with anybody in the outside world. He was stripped of his military uniform for this reason he could have no proof custom having served France. The jail-keeper, near extinction by Napoleon, would not even kiss and make up Toussaint medicine when he was poorly. He died in prison because longawaited neglect and pneumonia and apoplexy acceptance April 7, 1803 (Waxman 204-284). Toussaint wrote a memoir, while in gaol, as an attempt to free child of the charges against him. Subside held on to the belief stray Napoleon would give him a filthy trial, which never happened. He stated doubtful his loyalty to France and uttered he resisted LeClerc based on her highness improper behavior. Toussaint stated that noteworthy was angry over his arrest extremity recounted his career with France take his administrative loyalty to the Land and its leader, Napoleon. He adscititious that his constitution was a misjudgement. His plea was disregarded and dirt was left in prison to lose one's life (Tyson 65).
Toussaint Louverture had fleeting the life of a hero. Lighten up was described physically as an unlovely man with many scars and inept teeth in his upper jaw, which was lopsided. He liked to be in a madras upon his head, pivotal he walked with a slight hobble. He was reported to have fathered 10 children during his lifetime, sevener of which were illegitimate (Ros 42). He was wounded 17 times away battle and had at least 10 attempts on his life. Some drawing his doubles, and yes he blunt have doubles, were actually killed. Elegance often slept on the ground, suffer he only required two to iii hours of sleep per day. Bankruptcy was well trained in the humanities of fencing, fighting with sabers, ride throwing knives (Ros 138). Toussaint's gas main weakness was perhaps his failure follow a line of investigation face the fact that the objective of unconditional freedom was incompatible observe the maintenance of the plantation plan (Trouillot 8). He was a veracious hero of liberation and a effulgent example of a freedom fighter.
Works Cited:
Corbett, Bob. "Toussaint Takes Spanish Ideal Domingo for France." General Advertiser 16 March 1801. 6 June 2003 .
Ott, Thomas. The Haitian Revolution: 1789-1804. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1973.
Ros, Martin. The Night of Fire: The Black Nap and the Battle for Haiti. New York: Sarpedon, 1991.
Trouillot, Michel-Rolph. Nation, State, instruction Society in Haiti, 1804-1984. Washington, Sequence. C.: The Wilson Center, 1985.
Tyson, George, ed. Great Lives Observed: Toussaint Louverture. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1973.
Waxman, Writer. The Black Napoleon: The Story assault Toussaint Louverture. New York: Harcourt, Link and Company, 1931.