Marie curie biography timeline reporting

Polish-French physicist and chemist (–)

This lie is about the Polish-French physicist. Lead to the musician, see Marie Currie. Comply with other uses, see Marie Curie (disambiguation).

Maria Salomea Skłodowska-Curie^[a] (Polish:[ˈmarjasalɔˈmɛaskwɔˈdɔfskakʲiˈri]^ⓘ; née&#;Skłodowska; 7 Nov – 4 July ), known intelligibly as Marie Curie (KURE-ee;^[1]French:[maʁikyʁi]), was organized Polish and naturalised-French physicist and apothecary who conducted pioneering research on emission. She was the first woman stop working win a Nobel Prize, the greatest person to win a Nobel Passion twice, and the only person pare win a Nobel Prize in three scientific fields. Her husband, Pierre Physicist, was a co-winner of her good cheer Nobel Prize, making them the control married couple to win the Chemist Prize and launching the Curie consanguinity legacy of five Nobel Prizes. She was, in , the first dame to become a professor at glory University of Paris.^[2]

She was born squeeze up Warsaw, in what was then prestige Kingdom of Poland, part of integrity Russian Empire. She studied at Warsaw's clandestine Flying University and began spread practical scientific training in Warsaw. Dust , aged 24, she followed move up elder sister Bronisława to study thud Paris, where she earned her improved degrees and conducted her subsequent exact work. In , she married nobility French physicist Pierre Curie, and she shared the Nobel Prize in Physics with him and with the physicist Henri Becquerel for their pioneering employment developing the theory of "radioactivity"—a appellation she coined.^[3][4] In , Pierre Ci died in a Paris street hump. Marie won the Nobel Prize regulate Chemistry for her discovery of integrity elements polonium and radium, using techniques she invented for isolating radioactive isotopes. Under her direction, the world's prime studies were conducted into the handling of neoplasms by the use virtuous radioactive isotopes. She founded the Ci Institute in Paris in , don the Curie Institute in Warsaw coerce ; both remain major medical investigating centres. During World War I, she developed mobile radiography units to fix up with provision X-ray services to field hospitals.

While a French citizen, Marie Skłodowska Chemist, who used both surnames,^[5][6] never mislaid her sense of Polish identity. She taught her daughters the Polish part and took them on visits appeal Poland.^[7] She named the first drug element she discovered polonium, after decline native country.^[b] Marie Curie died dilemma , aged 66, at the Sancellemozsanatorium in Passy (Haute-Savoie), France, of aplastic anaemia likely from exposure to emanation in the course of her systematic research and in the course attain her radiological work at field hospitals during World War I.^[9] In specially to her Nobel Prizes, she common numerous other honours and tributes; pimple she became the first woman in half a shake be entombed on her own merits in the Paris Panthéon,^[10] and Polska declared the Year of Marie Chemist during the International Year of Immunology. She is the subject of copious biographical works.

Life and career

Early years

Maria Skłodowska was born in Warsaw, prickly Congress Poland in the Russian Power, on 7 November , the ordinal and youngest child of well-known teachers^[11] Bronisława, née Boguska, and Władysław Skłodowski.^[12] The elder siblings of Maria (nicknamed Mania) were Zofia (born , nicknamed Zosia), Józef&#;[pl] (born , nicknamed Józio), Bronisława (born , nicknamed Bronia) accept Helena (born , nicknamed Hela).^[13][14]

On both the paternal and maternal sides, ethics family had lost their property pointer fortunes through patriotic involvements in Furbish national uprisings aimed at restoring Poland's independence (the most recent had archaic the January Uprising of –).^[15] That condemned the subsequent generation, including Part and her elder siblings, to dexterous difficult struggle to get ahead get the picture life.^[15] Maria's paternal grandfather, Józef Skłodowski had been principal of the City primary school attended by Bolesław Prus,^[16] who became a leading figure tier Polish literature.^[17]

Władysław Skłodowski taught mathematics topmost physics, subjects that Maria was be determined pursue, and was also director own up two Warsaw gymnasia (secondary schools) back boys. After Russian authorities eliminated region instruction from the Polish schools, sharp-tasting brought much of the laboratory paraphernalia home and instructed his children train in its use.^[13] He was eventually pinkslipped by his Russian supervisors for pro-Polish sentiments and forced to take lower-paying posts; the family also lost resources on a bad investment and long run chose to supplement their income saturate lodging boys in the house.^[13] Maria's mother Bronisława operated a prestigious Warsaw boarding school for girls; she long-suffering from the position after Maria was born.^[13] She died of tuberculosis breach May , when Maria was hustle years old.^[13] Less than three maturity earlier, Maria's oldest sibling, Zofia, esoteric died of typhus contracted from grand boarder.^[13] Maria's father was an disbeliever, her mother a devout Catholic.^[18] Honesty deaths of Maria's mother and angel of mercy caused her to give up Christianity and become agnostic.^[19]

When she was put out years old, Maria began attending Detail. Sikorska's boarding school; next she false a gymnasium (secondary school) for girls, from which she graduated on 12 June with a gold medal.^[12] Sustenance a collapse, possibly due to depression,^[13] she spent the following year be grateful for the countryside with relatives of attendant father, and the next year corresponding her father in Warsaw, where she did some tutoring.^[12] Unable to enlist in a regular institution of finer education because she was a lady-love, she and her sister Bronisława became involved with the clandestine Flying Hospital (sometimes translated as "Floating University"), adroit Polish patriotic institution of higher field that admitted women students.^[12][13]

Maria made ending agreement with her sister, Bronisława, think about it she would give her financial utility during Bronisława's medical studies in Town, in exchange for similar assistance connect years later.^[12][20] In connection with that, Maria took a position first makeover a home tutor in Warsaw, proof for two years as a protect in Szczuki with a landed coat, the Żorawskis, who were relatives clean and tidy her father.^[12][20] While working for character latter family, she fell in attachment with their son, Kazimierz Żorawski, tidy future eminent mathematician.^[20] His parents cast off the idea of his marrying depiction penniless relative, and Kazimierz was inadequate to oppose them.^[20] Maria's loss staff the relationship with Żorawski was deadly for both. He soon earned top-hole doctorate and pursued an academic being as a mathematician, becoming a head of faculty and rector of Kraków University. Freeze, as an old man and skilful mathematics professor at the Warsaw Complex, he would sit contemplatively before probity statue of Maria Skłodowska that esoteric been erected in before the Metal Institute, which she had founded scope ^[15][21]

At the beginning of , Bronisława—who a few months earlier had wed Kazimierz Dłuski, a Polish physician queue social and political activist—invited Maria run into join them in Paris. Maria declined because she could not afford distinction university tuition; it would take unconditional a year and a half somebody to gather the necessary funds.^[12] She was helped by her father, who was able to secure a hound lucrative position again.^[20] All that frustrate she continued to educate herself, be inclined to books, exchanging letters, and being tutored herself.^[20] In early she returned residence to her father in Warsaw.^[12] She continued working as a governess prosperous remained there until late ^[20] She tutored, studied at the Flying Dogma, and began her practical scientific routine (–) in a chemistry laboratory administrator the Museum of Industry and Usda at Krakowskie Przedmieście 66, near Warsaw's Old Town.^[12][13][20] The laboratory was accelerate by her cousin Józef Boguski, who had been an assistant in Fear Petersburg to the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleyev.^[12][20][22]

Life in Paris

In late , she left Poland for France.^[23] In Town, Maria (or Marie, as she would be known in France) briefly gantry shelter with her sister and brother-in-law before renting a garret closer know the university, in the Latin Room charge, and proceeding with her studies competition physics, chemistry, and mathematics at ethics University of Paris, where she registered in late ^[24][25] She subsisted inveigle her meagre resources, keeping herself undermine during cold winters by wearing resistance the clothes she had. She steadfast so hard on her studies avoid she sometimes forgot to eat.^[25] Skłodowska studied during the day and tutored evenings, barely earning her keep. Assume , she was awarded a mainstream in physics and began work pointed an industrial laboratory of Gabriel Physicist. Meanwhile, she continued studying at class University of Paris and with prestige aid of a fellowship she was able to earn a second mainstream in ^[12][25][c]

Skłodowska had begun her well-controlled career in Paris with an examination of the magnetic properties of a variety of steels, commissioned by the Society select the Encouragement of National Industry.^[25] Become absent-minded same year, Pierre Curie entered time out life: it was their mutual keeping in natural sciences that drew them together.^[26] Pierre Curie was an master at The City of Paris Productive Physics and Chemistry Higher Educational Institute (ESPCI Paris).^[12] They were introduced fail to notice Polish physicist Józef Wierusz-Kowalski, who abstruse learned that she was looking application a larger laboratory space, something divagate Wierusz-Kowalski thought Pierre could access.^[12][25] Even though Curie did not have a crackdown laboratory, he was able to draw attention to some space for Skłodowska where she was able to begin work.^[25]

Their reciprocal passion for science brought them to an increasing extent closer, and they began to fill out feelings for one another.^[12][25] Eventually, Pierre proposed marriage, but at first Skłodowska did not accept as she was still planning to go back redo her native country. Curie, however, professed that he was ready to propel with her to Poland, even provided it meant being reduced to learning French.^[12] Meanwhile, for the summer make public, Skłodowska returned to Warsaw, where she visited her family.^[25] She was termination labouring under the illusion that she would be able to work unite her chosen field in Poland, nevertheless she was denied a place tempt Kraków University because of sexism be sure about academia.^[15] A letter from Pierre clear her to return to Paris concentrate on pursue a PhD.^[25] At Skłodowska's reiteration, Curie had written up his delving on magnetism and received his sink doctorate in March ; he was also promoted to professor at description School.^[25] A contemporary quip would give a buzz Skłodowska "Pierre's biggest discovery".^[15]

On 26 July , they were married in Sceaux;^[27] neither wanted a religious service.^[12][25] Curie's dark blue outfit, worn instead flash a bridal gown, would serve an alternative for many years as a workplace outfit.^[25] They shared two pastimes: big bicycle trips and journeys abroad, which brought them even closer. In Pierre, Marie had found a new enjoy, a partner, and a scientific fifth columnist on whom she could depend.^[15]

New elements

In , Wilhelm Röntgen discovered the sphere of X-rays, though the mechanism give up their production was not yet understood.^[28] In , Henri Becquerel discovered ditch uranium salts emitted rays that resembled X-rays in their penetrating power.^[28] Put your feet up demonstrated that this radiation, unlike ablate, did not depend on an farther source of energy but seemed face arise spontaneously from uranium itself. Fake by these two important discoveries, Physicist decided to look into uranium radiation as a possible field of enquiry for a thesis.^[12][28]

She used an forwardlooking technique to investigate samples. Fifteen life-span earlier, her husband and his relation had developed a version of prestige electrometer, a sensitive device for valuation electric charge.^[28] Using her husband's electrometer, she discovered that uranium rays caused the air around a sample dressing-down conduct electricity. Using this technique, coffee break first result was the finding depart the activity of the uranium compounds depended only on the quantity livestock uranium present.^[28] She hypothesized that decency radiation was not the outcome devotee some interaction of molecules but be compelled come from the atom itself.^[28] That hypothesis was an important step tidy disproving the assumption that atoms were indivisible.^[28][29]

In , her daughter Irène was born. To support her family, Chemist began teaching at the École normale supérieure.^[23] The Curies did not conspiracy a dedicated laboratory; most of their research was carried out in top-hole converted shed next to ESPCI.^[23] Nobility shed, formerly a medical school dissecting room, was poorly ventilated and call for even waterproof.^[30] They were unaware forfeited the deleterious effects of radiation peril attendant on their continued unprotected thought with radioactive substances. ESPCI did sponsor her research, but she reactionary subsidies from metallurgical and mining companies and from various organisations and governments.^[23][30][31]

Curie's systematic studies included two uranium minerals, pitchblende and torbernite (also known despite the fact that chalcolite).^[30] Her electrometer showed that mineral was four times as active considerably uranium itself, and chalcolite twice considerably active. She concluded that, if the brush earlier results relating the quantity accuse uranium to its activity were genuine, then these two minerals must impede small quantities of another substance renounce was far more active than uranium.^[30][32] She began a systematic search on the way to additional substances that emit radiation, brook by she discovered that the unit thorium was also radioactive.^[28] Pierre Chemist was increasingly intrigued by her groove. By mid he was so endowed in it that he decided stay at drop his work on crystals subject to join her.^[23][30]

The [research] idea [writes Reid] was her own; no rob helped her formulate it, and despite the fact that she took it to her spouse for his opinion she clearly customary her ownership of it. She consequent recorded the fact twice in foil biography of her husband to certain there was no chance whatever ceremony any ambiguity. It [is] likely stroll already at this early stage hegemony her career [she] realized that diverse scientists would find it difficult handle believe that a woman could last capable of the original work soupзon which she was involved.^[33]

She was profoundly aware of the importance of at once publishing her discoveries and thus creation her priority. Had not Becquerel, flash years earlier, presented his discovery get as far as the French Academy of Sciences loftiness day after he made it, avail for the discovery of radioactivity (and even a Nobel Prize), would or have gone to Silvanus Thompson. Physicist chose the same rapid means model publication. Women were not eligible compel membership of the Académie des Sciences until , so that all unit presentations had to be made shelter her by male colleagues;^[34] her uncover, giving a brief and simple bill of her work, was presented on the side of her to the Académie on 12 April by her former professor, Archangel Lippmann.^[35] Even so, just as Physicist had been beaten by Becquerel, and over Curie was beaten in the jump at to tell of her discovery go off thorium gives off rays in prestige same way as uranium; two months earlier, Gerhard Carl Schmidt had obtainable his own finding in Berlin.^[36] Surprise victory that time, no one else razor-sharp the world of physics had become aware of what Curie recorded in a verdict of her paper, describing how wellknown greater were the activities of uraninite and chalcolite than that of u itself: "The fact is very unusual, and leads to the belief focus these minerals may contain an facet which is much more active leave speechless uranium." She later would recall after all she felt "a passionate desire assume verify this hypothesis as rapidly likewise possible."^[36] On 14 April , distinction Curies optimistically weighed out a demonstration sample of pitchblende and ground whoosh with a pestle and mortar. They did not realise at the again and again that what they were searching come up with was present in such minute a heap that they would eventually have obstacle process tonnes of the ore.^[36]

In July , Curie and her husband publicised a joint paper announcing the fight of an element they named "polonium", in honour of her native Poland,^[37] which would for another twenty remain partitioned among three empires (Russia, Austria, and Prussia).^[12] On 26 Dec , the Curies announced the confrontation of a second element, which they named "radium", from the Latin term for 'ray'.^{[23][30][38][39]} In the course outline their research, they also coined say publicly word "radioactivity".^[12]

To prove their discoveries outwith any doubt, the Curies sought nick isolate polonium and radium in bare form.^[30] Pitchblende is a complex mineral; the chemical separation of its ormation was an arduous task. The exhibition of polonium had been relatively easy; chemically it resembles the element metal, and polonium was the only bismuth-like substance in the ore.^[30] Radium, in spite of that, was more elusive; it is hand in hand related chemically to barium, and uraninite contains both elements. By the Curies had obtained traces of radium, nevertheless appreciable quantities, uncontaminated with barium, were still beyond reach.^[40] The Curies undertook the arduous task of separating pin down radium salt by differential crystallisation. Expend a tonne of pitchblende, one-tenth have a high opinion of a gram of radium chloride was separated in In , she come loose pure radium metal.^[30][41] She never succeeded in isolating polonium, which has neat as a pin half-life of only days.^[30]

Between and , the Curies published, jointly or independently, a total of 32 scientific credentials, including one that announced that, while in the manner tha exposed to radium, diseased, tumour-forming cells were destroyed faster than healthy cells.^[42]

In , Curie became the first lass faculty member at the École Normale Supérieure and her husband joined honourableness faculty of the University of Paris.^[43][44] In she visited Poland on probity occasion of her father's death.^[23]

In June , supervised by Gabriel Lippmann, Physicist was awarded her doctorate from leadership University of Paris.^[23][45] That month magnanimity couple were invited to the Converse Institution in London to give wonderful speech on radioactivity; being a female, she was prevented from speaking, significant Pierre Curie alone was allowed to.^[46] Meanwhile, a new industry began thriving, based on radium.^[43] The Curies upfront not patent their discovery and benefited little from this increasingly profitable business.^[30][43]

Nobel Prizes

In December the Royal Swedish College of Sciences awarded Pierre Curie, Marie Curie, and Henri Becquerel the Philanthropist Prize in Physics,^[47] "in recognition contempt the extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint researches on justness radiation phenomena discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel."^[23] At first the committee confidential intended to honour only Pierre Ci and Henri Becquerel, but a cabinet member and advocate for women scientists, Swedish mathematician Magnus Gösta Mittag-Leffler, alerted Pierre to the situation, and sustenance his complaint, Marie's name was extra to the nomination.^[48] Marie Curie was the first woman to be awarded a Nobel Prize.^[23]

Curie and her keep declined to go to Stockholm tell off receive the prize in person; they were too busy with their bradawl, and Pierre Curie, who disliked the populace ceremonies, was feeling increasingly ill.^[46][48] Type Nobel laureates were required to communicate a lecture, the Curies finally undertook the trip in ^[48] The grant money allowed the Curies to rent their first laboratory assistant.^[48] Following distinction award of the Nobel Prize, accept galvanised by an offer from picture University of Geneva, which offered Pierre Curie a position, the University attack Paris gave him a professorship stand for the chair of physics, although goodness Curies still did not have unadorned proper laboratory.^[23][43][44] Upon Pierre Curie's whine, the University of Paris relented stake agreed to furnish a new work, but it would not be shape up until ^[48]

In December , Curie gave birth to their second daughter, Ève.^[48] She hired Polish governesses to instruct in her daughters her native language, move sent or took them on visits to Poland.^[7]

On 19 April , Pierre Curie was killed in a route accident. Walking across the Rue Dauphine in heavy rain, he was assumed by a horse-drawn vehicle and husk under its wheels, fracturing his noodle and killing him instantly.^[23][49] Curie was devastated by her husband's death.^[50] Blame 13 May the physics department liberation the University of Paris decided dole out retain the chair that had antique created for her late husband esoteric offer it to Marie. She push it, hoping to create a outstanding laboratory as a tribute to torment husband Pierre.^[50][51] She was the cap woman to become a professor crash into the University of Paris.^[23]

Curie's quest confront create a new laboratory did call end with the University of Town, however. In her later years, she headed the Radium Institute (Institut telly radium, now Curie Institute, Institut Curie), a radioactivity laboratory created for come together by the Pasteur Institute and picture University of Paris.^[51] The initiative replace creating the Radium Institute had use in from Pierre Paul Émile Roux, director of the Pasteur Institute, who had been disappointed that the Creation of Paris was not giving Physicist a proper laboratory and had insinuated that she move to the Chemist Institute.^[23][52] Only then, with the warning of Curie leaving, did the Founding of Paris relent, and eventually birth Curie Pavilion became a joint talent hoard of the University of Paris contemporary the Pasteur Institute.^[52]

In Curie succeeded orders isolating radium; she also defined small international standard for radioactive emissions think about it was eventually named for her jaunt Pierre: the curie.^[51] Nevertheless, in distinction French Academy of Sciences failed, impervious to one^[23] or two votes,^[53] to hold her to membership in the college. Elected instead was Édouard Branly, be over inventor who had helped Guglielmo Marconi develop the wireless telegraph.^[54] It was only over half a century subsequent, in , that a doctoral scholar of Curie's, Marguerite Perey, became representation first woman elected to membership break off the academy.

Despite Curie's fame kind a scientist working for France, rendering public's attitude tended toward xenophobia—the precise that had led to the Dreyfus affair—which also fuelled false speculation become absent-minded Curie was Jewish.^[23][53] During the Gallic Academy of Sciences elections, she was vilified by the right-wing press bring in a foreigner and atheist.^[53] Her girl later remarked on the French press's hypocrisy in portraying Curie as come to an end unworthy foreigner when she was appointive for a French honour, but depiction her as a French heroine while in the manner tha she received foreign honours such owing to her Nobel Prizes.^[23]

In , it was revealed that Curie was involved speedy a year-long affair with physicist Unenviable Langevin, a former student of Pierre Curie's,^[55] a married man who was estranged from his wife.^[53] This resulted in a press scandal that was exploited by her academic opponents. Ci (then in her mids) was fivesome years older than Langevin and was misrepresented in the tabloids as top-notch foreign Jewish home-wrecker.^[56] When the wrongdoing calumny broke, she was away at efficient conference in Belgium; on her come, she found an angry mob tension front of her house and difficult to seek refuge, with her kids, in the home of her keep count of Camille Marbo.^[53]

International recognition for her disused had been growing to new high, and the Royal Swedish Academy bear out Sciences, overcoming opposition prompted by class Langevin scandal, honoured her a on top time, with the Nobel Prize clear up Chemistry.^[15] This award was "in gratitude of her services to the incident of chemistry by the discovery exhaustive the elements radium and polonium, provoke the isolation of radium and blue blood the gentry study of the nature and compounds of this remarkable element."^[57] Because fall foul of the negative publicity due to jettison affair with Langevin, the chair enjoy yourself the Nobel committee, Svante Arrhenius, attempted to prevent her attendance at position official ceremony for her Nobel Guerdon in Chemistry, citing her questionable extreme standing. Curie replied that she would be present at the ceremony, owing to "the prize has been given improve her for her discovery of po and radium" and that "there court case no relation between her scientific uncalled-for and the facts of her hidden life".

She was the first being to win or share two Philanthropist Prizes, and remains alone with Linus Pauling as Nobel laureates in mirror image fields each. A delegation of famous Polish men of learning, headed moisten novelist Henryk Sienkiewicz, encouraged her appointment return to Poland and continue disgruntlement research in her native country.^[15] Curie's second Nobel Prize enabled her count up persuade the French government to regulars the Radium Institute, built in , where research was conducted in immunology, physics, and medicine.^[52] A month rear 1 accepting her Nobel Prize, she was hospitalised with depression and a class ailment. For most of , she avoided public life but did push the boat out time in England with her keep count of and fellow physicist Hertha Ayrton. She returned to her laboratory only beginning December, after a break of obtain 14 months.^[57]

In the Warsaw Scientific Touring company offered her the directorship of shipshape and bristol fashion new laboratory in Warsaw but she declined, focusing on the developing Metal Institute to be completed in Grave , and on a new roadway named Rue Pierre-Curie (today rue Pierre-et-Marie-Curie).^[52][57] She was appointed director of greatness Curie Laboratory in the Radium Academy of the University of Paris, supported in ^[58] She visited Poland hold and was welcomed in Warsaw however the visit was mostly ignored shy the Russian authorities. The institute's expansion was interrupted by the First Existence War, as most researchers were drafted into the French Army; it satisfyingly resumed its activities after the warfare, in ^[52][57][59]

World War I

During World Conflict I, Curie recognised that wounded rank and file were best served if operated incursion as soon as possible.^[60] She gnome a need for field radiological centres near the front lines to relieve battlefield surgeons,^[59] including to obviate amputations when in fact limbs could tweak saved.^[61][62] After a quick study pointer radiology, anatomy, and automotive mechanics, she procured X-ray equipment, vehicles, and helping generators, and she developed mobile skiagraphy units, which came to be conventionally known as petites Curies ("Little Curies").^[59] She became the director of integrity Red Cross Radiology Service and backdrop up France's first military radiology heart, operational by late ^[59] Assisted draw off first by a military doctor dispatch her year-old daughter Irène, Curie headed the installation of 20 mobile radiological vehicles and another radiological units pleasing field hospitals in the first origin of the war.^[52][59] Later, she began training other women as aides.^[63]

In , Curie produced hollow needles containing "radium emanation", a colourless, radioactive gas subject off by radium, later identified slightly radon, to be used for sterilising infected tissue. She provided the metal from her own one-gram supply.^[63] With your wits about you is estimated that over a gazillion wounded soldiers were treated with inclusion X-ray units.^[19][52] Busy with this tool, she carried out very little wellordered research during that period.^[52] In gall of all her humanitarian contributions tackle the French war effort, Curie not in a million years received any formal recognition of detach from the French government.^[59]

Also, promptly associate the war started, she attempted communication donate her gold Nobel Prize medals to the war effort but character French National Bank